THE LEGEND OF JAYADEVA & HIS CREATION

N N DASH

A nation however immensely powerful and prosperous it might be, would one day efface into the twilight of history, leaving only the impression of its greatness through its art, architecture, sculpture, music and literature. The culture of Orissa today has earned a distinct identity of its own for its rich depository of visual, performing and literary arts withstanding the acid-test of time. However, this cultural tradition needs continuity by effectively interacting with the process of change in the sociocultural set-up of successive generations. No civilisation can survive without constant reference to its history and past experiences. It has therefore, become increasingly important to know more and more about the luminaries, who have contributed towards the growth of their national culture, not only for preserving it, but also for furthering the same. Jayadeva, the great saint poet of Sanskrit literature, was one of the greatest sons of this soil—a luminous, ageless eternal, celebrity. He was the last great poet of classical Sanskrit literature, and the author of the grand lyrical devotional song 'The Gitagovinda'. In the words of Hilde Bach, author of Indian Love Paintings, "He (Jayadeva) wrote ecstatically of the love of Radha and Krishna, which symbolized the love of the soul for God, personified in Krishna. The poem is regarded as an allegory of the soul striving to escape the allurement of the senses to find peace in mystical union with God. Hence arose a doctrine of passionate personal devotion, bhakti or faith in an incarnate deity, in the form of Krishna and absolute surrender of self to the divine He was not only a brilliant poet of Sanskrit literature but was also considered a reformer and a religious leader."(1) Margaret and James Stutley in A Dictionary of Hinduism wrote: "Though chiefly remembered as a poet, he (Jayadeva) was a great reformer, especially of the early Krishna cults...".(2)
Lee Siegel commented in Sacred and Profane Dimensions of Love in Indian Traditions'- "... The poet has juxtaposed conventional descriptions of carnal love play with traditional expressions of devotion and in so doing has created an ambiguous relationship between the sacred and profane dimensions of love. The Gitagovinda is not a sacred or profane work; it is a sacred and profane work."(3)
The Gitagovinda is probably the only work of its kind, commentaries of which exist in almost every part of the nation. It is, however, quite significant to note that unlike other regions of the country, the influence of the Gitagovinda on various streams of literature, music, dance, painting, folklore, art, sculpture etc. has been encompassing. Even today the enchanting melodies of the Gitagovinda are invoked before Lord Jagannatha in his abode. The scenes of this lyrical drama are brought to life by the accomplished Odissi danseuses. The colourful 17th century manuscript of the Gitagovinda and the depiction of the different scenes of the same in the traditional Patta paintings of Orissa speak about the influence of the Gitagovinda on the art form in Orissa. According to Prof. Thomas Donaldson, the famous art historian, the ragas or musical notes used in the Gitagovinda are fully utilized with greater dimensions by the old Oriya writers, whereas these ragas were rarely met with in the old Bengali literature.(4) The influence of Gitagovinda on the cultural traditions of Orissa is nicely summed up by Kapila Vatsyayan, who says "...There is no gainsaying that Orissa is the richest repository of the tradition of the Gitagovinda in the literary, pictorial and performing arts alike...".(5) It can therefore be said without doubt that the cultural climate of Orissa is a product of work to an extent that no other region in the country can match it. This relationship has provoked the scholars and researchers to delve into the life and works of Jayadeva and the cultural milieu in which he blossomed. The purpose of this essay is to present in a nutshell, that cultural environment of Orissa which gave the world the first specimen of the devotional-erotic magnum-opus the Gitagovinda.

The Period of Jayadeva

Some cantos of the Gitagovinda appear in 'The Saduktikarnamrita' compiled by Sridhara Das, the court poet of King Laxmanasena of Bengal, in the year 1205 AD (1127 Shakabda). There had been a description of `Subhasita Padavali' in the commentary of `Amarakosa' written by Sarvananda in 1159 AD. As few stanzas of `Gitagovinda' have found a place in the said Padavali', it can be safely concluded that the Gitagovinda had been composed in the early part of the 12th century AD.(6) The claim of some scholars that Jayadeva was a court poet of Laxmanasena does not appear to be historically true since Laxmanasena ascended throne in 1178 AD. In all probability Jayadeva belonged to the early 12th century AD. This also matches the description in the stone inscription deciphered by the eminent historian Dr. S.N. Rajaguru, which has been discussed elsewhere in this essay. The claim of some scholars that Jayadeva was a contemporary of Umapatidhara, Sarana, Dhoyi and Govardhanacharya, who belonged to the Court of Laxmanasena, on the basis of the 3rd verse (1st canto) of the Gitagovinda has been found to be of no substance by scholars ranging from Rana Kumbha to Prof. Donaldson.
The famous Bengali scholar Dr. S.K. Chatterjee in his work `Jayadeva' has mentioned that Jayadeva belonged to the Court of Laxmanasena on the basis of the appearance of his verses in `Saduktikarnamrita' compiled by Shri S.C. Banerjee. According to Dr. Chatterjee, all the 31 stanzas composed by Jayadeva which find a place in the `Saduktikarnamrita' had been composed by the author of `Gitagovinda' though Jayadeva, the author of Prasannaraghava' was also his contemporary. Out of the 31 stanzas he mentions, 5 stanzas have been taken from the `Gitagovinda'. Dr. Chatterjee believed Jayadeva to be a contemporary of Govardhanacharya, Sarana, Dhoyi, Umapatidhara, Halayudha and Keshavasen whose poems have appeared in `Saduktikarnamrita' (7) Barbara Stoler Miller, significantly, has rejected the authenticity of S.C. Bannerjee's `Saduktikarnamrita' as he had not depended on any manuscript prior to 17th century. She has pointed out that any 2 verses out of the 5 mentioned in `Saduktikarnamrita' (SKM 659 = GG 6-2 & SKM 1144 = GG 11-10) were form the Gitagovinda.(8) It is significant to note here that 1567th stanza of Prashastibrajya' of `Subhasita Ratnakosa' written by Jayadeva has appeared as the 1538th stanza of Saduktikarnamrita.(9) Since `Subhasita Ratnakosa of Vidyakara had been compiled in the 11th century, it can be safely deduced that poems finding place in `Saduktikarnamrita' did not belong to the poets who were contemporaries only. Had Jayadeva been a contemporary of Laxmanasena, only 2 stanzas of a work like the Gitagovinda would not have found place in a vast work like `Saduktikarnamrita'.

Jayadeva's Place

In the absence of any detailed reference to his time and place in the Gitagovinda, the historians/researchers had to depend on the historical and archaeological clues like remains of monuments, stone inscriptions, and contemporary literature for getting an idea about Jayadeva's time and place. Though such material traces are not plenty, still those are sufficient to provide a fair idea about the same.
i) Remains
In the 3rd canto of the Gitagovinda, it is mentioned that the song was depicted by Jayadeva with devotion to Hari; (Jayadeva is like) the moon born from the ocean of Kenduvilva, indicating the importance of Kenduvilva during his period. The ancient city of Kenduvilva, which had a rich depository of archaeological remains, had been explored for the first time by the late Paramananda Acharya, Kedarnath Mahapatra and Dinesh Chandra Sarkar on January 16, 1956.(10) The remains of a number of temples and monuments in and around the area were reflective of a rich cultural heritage of the entire Prachi river valley. The subsequent archaeological explorations under the stewardship of late Kedarnath Mahapatra brought the village to limelight, the cultural grandeur of which matched the description of the 'Ocean of Kenduvilva' by Jayadeva himself in Gitagovinda. The details have been extensively dealt with by late K.N. Mahapatra in his monumental work `Shri Jayadeva 0 shri Gitagovinda"(11) and subsequent scholars/historians.
ii) Stone inscription
The discovery of a stone inscription from the Lingaraja Temple by another great historian of Orissa, Dr. S.N. Rajaguru was a major breakthrough in determining Jayadeva's time and place. It was inscribed in 1162 AD during the reign of Raghavadev. According to the inscription, `Sadhupradhan Jayadeva' of Shrikurmakhetra was present when Medamadevi, daughter of Kominayaka purchased a piece of land named Bahadakhandakhetra from Dasapur Shresthi for Krittivasa Shiva.(12)Subsequent study of scholars of some stone inscriptions have revealed that Kominayaka was a very important official of the Ganga kingdom, which justifies the presence of the 'Sadhupradhan' during the transaction. The late K.N. Mahapatra and Dr. S.N. Rajaguru and other eminent scholars have discussed in detail about the importance of `Srikurma' as a prominent Vaishnava pilgrimage situated near the then capital of Kalinga `Kalinganagara'. The revelation of Jayadeva's time from this inscription confirms the assumptions of scholars about the same which has already been discussed.
iii) Contemporary literature
Three copies of the palm leaf manuscripts of `Vaishnava Lilamrita' written by Vaishnava poet Madhava Patnaik had been found from different places of Orissa which deal with the period from 1516 AD to the death of Sri Chaitanya. It is said to have been written in 1535 AD and appears to have been copied in the 18th century. The Vaishnava Lilamrita' has been presented in the book form by Dr. Ghanashyam Rath and Dr. B.C. Acharya based on the said copies of the Lilamrita. All the factual details of the social and cultural events centring around Sri Jagannatha temple, Sri Chaitanyadeva and Sri Jayadeva have been elaborately chronicled there. The descriptions are also in chronological order. How Jayadeva of Kenduli came to Shrikhetra and composed 'The Gitagovinda' before Lord Jagannatha have been narrated in the book with minute details."(13)

According to Madalapanji also, the Gitagovinda had been introduced to invoke before Lord Jagannatha during the reign of King Narasimhadeva who ruled from 1147 AD to 1156 AD.(14). Among the many commentaries of the Gitagovinda available across the country, `Sarvangasundari Tika' by Narayanadasa, the court poet of the 14th century Kalinga King Narasimhadeva II, was one of the oldest. According to Barbara Stoler Miller,"...no Bengali manuscript earlier to 16th century could be available, whereas manuscripts in Oriya scripts of Narayanadasa's `Sarvangasundari Tika' were available in many parts of the region."(15) This suggests that Jayadev's Gitagovinda was closer to the cultural climate of Orissa than that of any other part of the country including Bengal.

Few scholars, however, on the basis of the `Virabhumi Chronicle' of Harekrishna Mukhopadhyaya, `Jayadeva Charita' by Vanamali Das and the Baul festival of Birbhum, claimed that Jayadeva belonged to village Kenduli of Birbhum district of Bengal.
According to the `Virabhumi chronicle' of Harekrishna Mukhopadhaya, a line containing the names of Govardhana, Sarana, Jayadeva, Kaviraja (Dhoyi) and Umapatidhara had been seen along with the name of King Laxmanasena on the lintel of the latter's courtroom, by Sri Rupa and Sanatana Gosvami."(16) As per historical documents like 'Tabaquat-i-nasiri', Laxmanasena's palace had been destroyed by Bakhtiar Khilji. Sri Rupa and Sanatan Gosvami appeared after 300 years, by which time there would not have been any trace of the palace leave aside the lintel. Moreover, no mention of this appears in the works of either Sri Rupa and Sanatana Gosvami or others. It is, therefore, highly illogical to accept Birabhumi Chronicle' as a historical document. Similarly, the authenticity of Jayadevacharita' of Banamali Dasa as the biography of Jayadeva has been rejected by Dr. S.K. Chatterjee as the period of Jayadeva had been brought down by the poet from the 12th to his own century.(17)
Regarding the Kenduli Festival of Birabhumi, the claim of some scholars that it is held in the birthplace of Jayadeva in his honour is factually incorrect. The Baul Festival of Kenduli is not a part of the Vaishnava religious movement. According to historian Ashutosh Bhattacharya - "...The festival of Kenduli in Bengal is not for Jayadeva; that is the festival of the Baul community. That has got no link with Jayadeva...”.(18)
Besides the scholars, historians and researchers of Orissa, many outstanding personalities outside the state have concluded that Jayadeva belonged to Kenduvilva of Orissa. Prof. Thomas Donaldson, in his `Kamadeva's Pleasure Garden-Orissa', has accepted the arguments of the Orissan scholars about Jayadeva's place and time.(19) In a seminar conducted by the Orissa Sahitya Akademi on December 21, 1991 at Bhubaneswar, Prof. Donaldson reiterated his earlier findings that Jayadeva was born and brought up in Orissa, in reply to a pointed question of the writer regarding Jayadeva's time and place. He confirmed that Jayadeva was neither a contemporary of Laxmanasena, nor belonged to his court. According to Dr. Sukumar Sen, Jayadeva was a native of Orissa(20). It is also mentioned in the Gazetteer of India (Vol-II, Part-I Chapter-V) edited by Shri S.K. Saraswati and others that Jayadeva belonged to Kenduvilva of Orissa(21). I am not going into details of the comments of poets/saints across the country belonging to different periods of time who have mentioned in no uncertain terms that Jayadeva was from Orissa, like Sant Priya Das, Sant Mahipati (Marathi), poet Krishna Das (Bengal), Chandradutta (Mithila), etc. These have been elaborately discussed by the scholars and historians of Orissa.

Jayadeva and the Ascendancy of Sri Radha

The `Gitagovinda' of Jayadeva was a continuity of the growing Vaishnava faith originating from texts such as Vishnu Purana, Harivamsha, Bhagabata Purana etc. The entire state is dotted with temples where Lord Vishnu is worshipped in many forms. The reference to `Madhava' in the metal and pillar inscriptions, and discovery of a sizeable number of Madhava images from the Prachi valley belonging to the 11th and 12th centuries speak about the spread of the Madhava-cult in Orissa during that time. That justifies the invocation of Madhava throughout the `Gitagovinda.' The Vaishnava Religious movement however, assumed significance when Radha was introduced with her full glory as the heroine of this Vaishnava devotional erotic pastoral, `Gitagovinda'. There is no mention about her in the most sacred text of the Vaishnavas, 'The Bhagabata Purana', and little mention in the earlier works like Hala's `Gathasaptasati'; Bhattanarayana's `Venisamhara'; Abhinavagupta's `Dhwanyalokalochana' etc. ranging from 4th/5th century onwards. As we look back, we find this mysterious character slowly unveiling herself with the passage of time, then suddenly appearing before us with all her grandeur in the `Gitagovinda'. To quote Barbara Stoler Miller, "... Radha is one of the most obscure figures in early Indian literature. Until Jayadeva made her the heroine of his poem, she appeared only in stray verses scattered through various Puranas, anthologies of Prakrit and Sanskrit poetry, works of literary aesthetics, grammar, poetry, drama, and a few inscriptions. In Gitagovinda, Radha is neither a wife nor a worshipping rustic playmate. She is an intense, solitary, proud female who compliments and reflects the mood of Krishna's passion. She is Krishna's partner in a secret and exclusive love, contrasted in the poem with the circular rasa dance Krishna performs with the entire group of cowherds ....Her relationship with Krishna culminates in their union and mutual 'victory' (jaya) over each other...”(22). It is, therefore relevant to trace the origin and development of the concept of Sri Radha in religion, history and archaeology of the state to get an idea about the climate which gave birth to the Vaishnava cult.
According to Narahari Chakraborty, author of the encyclopaedia of Vaishnava religious history Bhakti Ratnakara' written in the 18th century, the image of Radha was initially found in Orissa, which had been sent to Vrindavana to be placed alongside the single image of Krishna, after the same was worshipped in the temple of Lord Jagannatha(23). This is also corroborated by historians like Amarnath Ray who wrote, "The deities installed by the Gosvamins at Vrindavana were single images of Krishna; that long after their times a chief of Orissa sent to Vrindavana the first Srimurty (image of Radha) which was installed by the side of one of the deities and the omission in case of others was made good gradually" (24). During the reign of Aurangzeb, those images of Radhakrishna were shifted to Jaipur for reasons of safety. When the Radhakrishna icons were worshipped there, the Vaishnava scholars of South India questioned the sanctity of worshipping Radha with Krishna. It was the great Vaishnava philosopher/saint from Orissa Pandit Baladeva Vidyabhusan who, propounding the theory of `Achintya Vedaveda' convinced that Srikrishna was the Supreme Soul (Param Bramha) while Radha was a manifestation of his Blissful Energy (hladini Shakti). According to Padmashree Paramananda Acharya, who has dealt with this extensively in his 'Archaeology of Orissa and Other Essays', the images were worshipped during the reign of King Sawai Jaisingh of Jaipur who ruled from 1698 AD to 1743 AD. Baladeva Vidyabhusana, therefore belonged to the eighteenth century(25). Much before this, however, it was Acharya Nimbarka, who is believed to have been a contemporary of Jayadeva, who had propounded the Radhakrishna cult, describing God as Gopalakrishna accompanied by Radha and Gopis and engaged in play with them. During the reign of the Ganga dynasty, the cultural exchange between Orissa and South India was at its height. The great Vaishnava saints of South namely Shri Vishnu Svami, Acharya Nimbarka, Shri Madhavacharya and Shri Ramanujacharya, according to Late K.N. Mohapatra, were congregating at Puri frequently for furthering the Vaishnava religious movement(26). It, therefore, appears that Jayadeva's work and the Vaishnava religious movement were complementary to each other in bringing about the ascendancy of 'Sri Radha' in the cultural milieu of the then Orissa. To quote Shri Gopikamohan Bhattacharya, the Bengali scholar on Vaishnavism, "The Radha legend has been elaborately worked out by Jayadeva, the Nimbarka sect has also done its bit to promote it."(27) According to Prof. Donaldson, "With Jayadeva we have the introduction of the Radha cult in the literature of Orissa. The immediate popularity of the Gitagovinda is evident by its recitation in the temple of Jagannatha during the reign of Narasimha II(AD 1278-1300), approximately one hundred years after its creation, though it is not until the 16th century with the advent of Shri Chaitanya, that the cult of Radha, or consort service, became widespread throughout Orissa(28).
In this context, I invite the attention of the scholars to the recent discovery of a figurine sharing a decorated platform with Lord Krishna under a tree laden with oval flowers during the de-plastering of the facades of the Jagannatha temple. An ornamental arch around the couple suggests divinity of this figurine. If the contention of the archaeologists that the lady was none but Radha is true, it would, perhaps be one of the oldest images of Radha ever found. Can we induce from this that the worship of Radha and Krishna around which an entire Vaishnava cult revolves was a gift from Orissa to the cultural mainstream?
It indeed becomes a delicate and tricky affair to delve into the literary and cultural history of a nation where so many art forms have so profusely flowered. As also the onus of bringing in change with continuity; so that the practice of art and culture becomes a more relevant and a more meaningful exercise.
It does make one feel sad to find that much of the literary and cultural movements of this state have not been coded. This region has remained in the darkness for long, despite her having given birth to a galaxy of luminaries.
One of Orissa's historians and scholars, the late K.N. Mohapatra gave her the first comprehensive work on saint-poet Jayadeva. He had the uniqueness of being both a historian and a scholar in Sanskrit, a faculty which enabled him to decipher the archives with ease and relate it to other historical documents. But surprisingly there hasn't been any translation of his work either into English or any other Indian language. Thus numerous cultural treasures of this state would take a painfully long time to be explored. It is echoed in the lament of the outstanding researcher Charles Fabri who writes, "I have yet to come across any book or even an article that has ever been attempted to deal in a consecutive, chronological manner with the art-history of the state..."(29). What we need today is an ordered, in-depth study of our cultural past. A study guided by a scientific temper than by any emotional bias. Any authentic output would benefit learning immensely.
It is only the proverbial tip of the iceberg that we have discovered. Similar revelations are sure to come in other forms of art. The eminent historian Sri K.C. Panigrahi had talked about the 17th century colourful palm-leaf manuscript of Gitagovinda preserved in the museum. According to him, such a manuscript coupled with the historical details of Jayadeva's life and times could attract a worldwide audience(30). Jayadeva, whose impact on the cultural milieu was so profound, was also a product of that same culture. Let it be our honest effort to explore the priceless heritage of Orissan culture and celebrate the continuity of that glorious tradition.

References
1. Bach, Hilda, Indian Love Painting, New York : Crescent Books, 1985.
2. Stutley Margaret and James, A Dictionary of Hinduism, New Delhi : Heritage Publishers, 1986.
3. Siegel, Lee, Sacred and Profane Dimensions of Love in Indian Traditions, New Delhi,
Oxford University Press, 1990.
4. Donaldson, Thomas, Kamadeva's Pleasure Garden : Orissa, New Delhi: B.R. Publish­ing Corpn., 1987.
5. Vatsyayan, Kapila, The Illustrated Manuscripts of the Gitagovinda from Orissa.
6. Mishra, Bimal Kishore, Essay Appearing in Orissa Review - May 1991.
7. Chatterjee, S.K., Jayadeva, New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1973.
8. Miller, Barbara Stoler, The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas,1984.
9. Mahapatra, K.N., Shri Jayadeva and Shri Gitagovinda, BBSR, 1973.
10. Acharya, P.N., The Archaeology of Orissa and Other Essays, BBSR: Orissa Sahitya Akademi, 1972.
11. Mahapatra, K.N., Shri Jayadeva and Shri Gitagovinda, BBSR, 1973.
12. Rajaguru S.N., Orissa Historical Research Journal Vol: V.
13. Acharya, B.C. & Ratha, G.S., Ed. Vaishnava Lilamrita by Madhava Patnaik, Sambalpur,Pradip Publications,
14. Mahapatra, K.N., Shri Jayadeva and Shri Gitagovinda, BBSR, 1973.
15. Miller, Barbara Stoler, The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas,1984.
16. Panda, Dr. Bhagaban, Kaviraja Jayadeva Charita : Translated from Chandradutta's original work, Cuttack, 1986.
17. Chatterjee, S.K., Jayadeva, New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1973.
18. Mishra, Nilamani, Jayadeva in the Pan Indian Tradition, and taken from Jayadeva, the
poet of Orissa: Orissa Sanskriti Parishad: 1986.
19. Donaldson, Thomas, Kamadeva's Pleasure Garden : Orissa, New Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corp., 1987.
20. Sen, Dr. Sukumar, History of Bengali Literature, New Delhi, Sahitya Akademi.
21. Gazetteer of India, History and Culture-Vol.II, Part I, Chap. V.
22. Miller, Barbara Stoler, The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 1984.
23. Acharya, P.N., The Archaeology of Orissa and Other Essays, BBSR: Orissa Sahitya Akademi, 1972.
24. Acharya, P.N., The Archaeology of Orissa and Other Essays, BBSR: Orissa SahityaAkademi, 1972.
25. Acharya, P.N., The Archaeology of Orissa and Other Essays, BBSR: Orissa Sahitya Akademi, 1972.
26. Mahapatra, K.N., Shri Jayadeva and Shri Gitagovinda, BBSR : Granthakarta, 1973.
27. Bhattacharya, Gopikamohan, Vaishnava Literature (Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. V,
R.K. Mission Institute of Culture, 1978.
28. Donaldson, Thomas, Hindu Temple Art of Orissa, Vol. II, E.J. Brill, 1986.
29. Fabri, Charles, History of the Art of Orissa, New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1974.

30. Panigrahi K.C., The Orissa of My Times, Cuttack: Kitab Mahal, 1987.
Published in NILABDHI, Harman Publishing House, New Delhi, 2002